Introduction

Community is an integral part of the human experience. Feeling a sense of belonging is crucial for an individual’s well-being within society. Throughout history, racial barriers, such as systematic discrimination and exclusion, restricted Black people’s social, political, and employment opportunities, barring them from full integration into society.^[1] In response to being unwelcome in white-dominated institutions, Black people created spaces within their own communities where they would be accepted. These spaces became the foundation on which Black social clubs were built. Black social clubs were integral to developing Black communities by acting as safe spaces, support networks, and advocacy groups.^[2] Moreover, these clubs helped facilitate these functions by providing time and resources for national events such as Emancipation Day celebrations; which have allowed them to gain traction in the Canadian consciousness. These celebrations have, and continue to, foster Black communities by acknowledging the shared history of Black Canadians and advocating for the continual improvement of the Black experience.^[3] One association that provided the Black community with these sorts of social clubs was the United Negro Improvement Association (UNIA).

The UNIA was founded by Marcus Garvey in Kingston, Jamaica, in 1914.^[4] Garvey established this association to improve and empower Black lives after realizing that social exclusion and anti-black racism were rampant globally.^[5] While the UNIA’s headquarters were in Harlem, New York, the UNIA operated locally, nationally, and internationally, eventually expanding to 32 locations across North America.^[6] These numerous divisions enabled the UNIA to identify general concerns while also being able to address and adapt to the unique needs of each community.

Canada’s three largest branches were in Montreal, Toronto, and Nova Scotia. The success of these Canadian divisions was primarily due to the participation of Caribbean and African immigrants.^[7] Canadian-born Black people comprised a minor portion of the association’s members.^[8] This mixture of ethnic identities and backgrounds has called into question the idea of a singular Black population within Canada.^[9] Black Canadians represent many backgrounds, ethnicities, and intellectual thinking,^[10] all of which inform and influence their unique experiences. This chapter will explore the contributions made by Canada’s three most extensive branches of the UNIA to highlight the pivotal role it played in providing Black communities with the resources they needed, to establish Black communities across Canada. The establishment of these communities was then what made facilitating Emancipation Day celebrations across Canada possible.

Branch 1: UNIA of Montreal, QB 

Officially formed in 1919, the Montreal branch became the fifth division of the UNIA.^[11] The division was established following Garvey’s trip to Montreal in 1917, where he met with a pre-established Black organization known as the Universal Loyal Negros Association (ULNA).^[12] This organization was brought to Montreal by West Indians who had been a part of the association in Panama.^[13] The ULNA wrote to the UNIA’s head office asking to create a division in Montreal and was subsequently recognized as the 5th division of the UNIA in March 1919.^[14] The development of this division was crucial as Black communities struggled to establish spaces that would harbour their well-being and set them up for success. This was due to the frequent exclusion and racial discrimination Black individuals faced when trying to participate in society as equal counterparts to the White population.

This division began operations out of a small space at 243 St. Antoine Street for its first year, 1919 to 1920, which was a building owned by the Canadian Pacific Railway (CPR) that housed many sleeping car porters on their layovers in Montreal.^[15] The CRP was an organization that employed many Black men to work as car porters. This population of Black men in this building is one of the reasons why the building was used as the headquarters for the UNIA branch. The headquarters did not remain in this location for long, however, due to the perceived threat of these same car porters losing their jobs. Car porters felt that any association with the UNIA would not be well-received by the CPR, as the CRP profited off of racism by hiring Black people at lower wages.^[16] The CPR also took a liking to the idea of being waited on by Black men as it was considered a luxury and viewed favourably as any threat to this established relationship would jeopardize car porter’s job security. This fear that the car porters felt demonstrated the need for Black spaces, and the difficulty that Black people had with building said space. Any association with a movement that was aimed at improving the lives of Black people and affording them with the same opportunities as their White counterparts, threatened the little job security that Car porters were able to have, causing them to be cautious of even participating in an organization like the UNIA.

Like all divisions of the UNIA, the Montreal unit was required to hold weekly meetings on Sundays from 3:00 pm to 6:00 pm.^[17] Through the successful years of 1919-25, meetings were recalled at least twice weekly to accommodate all active members.^[18] These meetings were often subject to guest speakers. Two notable guests include Marcus Garvey himself and Dr. Kwame Nkrumah, the Prime Minister and President of Ghana, who both spoke at Liberty Hall.^[19] These guest speakers were invited to speak to the members of the UNIA in hopes to bolster attitudes that would lift the spirits of this oppressed population. As mentioned, the main goal of the UNIA was to empower and uplift the entire Black population and unite them with common values and goals. This was an important part of the UNIA’s mission as the many subgroups of the Black population shared different backgrounds yet experienced the same exclusion and racial prejudice as one another. Along with these speeches, education classes also took place in the Montreal division. Students would learn skills such as short-hand writing, typewriting, trades skills, and more.^[20] These classes were a  necessity as, much like every other aspect of Canadian society, the Black population was barred from attending schools with their White counterparts. When pursuing higher education, the UNIA of Montreal also supported students through awards and bursaries to help finance their endeavours.^[21] These awards were typically directed at students coming from overseas, specifically from Africa.^[22]

Lastly, the UNIA also hosted social and recreational activities that allowed the Black population a place to simply relax and enjoy social interaction with others within the community. The UNIA of Montreal held many dances, concerts, parties of wide varieties, and excursions by bus, train, and boat.^[23] These gatherings were essential in forming a Black community in Montreal by providing a safe place to gather Black people in the city, as they were denied access to such spaces that were predominantly White. The Black population had few spaces that they could claim as their own and not feel as though they were not welcomed. Furthermore, these events were critical to the organization’s success in raising money for the division to continue to operate.^[24]

Branch  2: UNIA of Toronto, ON

Another significant Canadian chapter of the UNIA was situated in the city of Toronto. The chapter was originally founded in 1919, shortly after the aforementioned Montreal division, where it was referred to as the “Coloured Literary Association” before officially becoming Toronto’s UNIA division later in 1919.^[25] This chapter’s origins can be traced back to April 1919, when it was founded by several West Indian men who met in the back room of Occidental Cleaners and Dyers at 318 Spadina Avenue, Toronto. The group was officially given status as a UNIA Chapter from the head office in Harlem, New York, on December 1st, 1919.^[26] Much like the Montreal division, the branches of the UNIA situated themselves in places where there were large Black populations, in order to cater to the needs of each community.

After becoming an official member of the UNIA, the Toronto chapter expanded significantly across the city. In its infancy, meetings were held at Occidental Hall, at the corner of Queen Street West and Bathurst Street, until members gathered enough money to eventually relocate to their long-term location of 355 College Ave in 1925 where the chapter remained till its closure in 1982.^[27] By the time of their move to College Ave, the group was highly diverse. Although many of its members were still of West Indian descent, this chapter saw support from various ethnic groups, including Black Canadians, African Americans, and African Nova Scotians. These diverse identities can, in part, be attributed to the coal mining industry in the area that attracted many Black immigrants. These different ethnic groups of the Black population made establishing a unified Black community difficult, hence why associations like the UNIA attempted to unite these groups towards a common goal. This was extremely valuable and important because, although the Black population had much diversity, they all experienced the same exclusion at the hands of their Blackness, which is a recurring theme seen throughout Canadian society.

355 College Ave became a neighbourhood hub for the surrounding community. Many Black people settled between College and Dundas Streets and between University Ave and Spadina, which is within walking distance of the UNIA location. This specific location hosted weekly meetings where current events and issues were discussed, along with weekly Sunday church services. Violet Blackman, a Toronto local who attended the chapter, stated, “that was one building where I felt within myself that, even if I’m gone from here, my young children … could open that door, and no one could tell them that they can’t come in”.^[28] The sentiments echoed by Blackman demonstrate the importance of Black spaces, which encouraged feelings of inclusion and safety when the broader Canadian society routinely excluded them.

The encouragement of inclusion and safe spaces for Black people can be further understood through examples like the 3rd floor of the club being infamous for hosting black entertainment. At the time, many Black people were refused service at “white bars,” pushing many Black people to migrate to the UNIA to listen to jazz music on their nights out.^[29] Showcasing, once again, how the UNIA adapted to meet the needs of a given community.  The UNIA location on College Ave was multipurpose and was a key community meeting ground for numerous Black people in the city of Toronto.

Another critical event hosted by the Toronto UNIA was the annual “Emancipation Day Picnic” held annually in Lakeside Park in St Catherines in 1930. Thousands of Black people from around Ontario would meet in celebration of British emancipation from slavery. The St Catherines emancipation celebration hosted by the Toronto UNIA was the largest in all of Canada. Black people from the United States would even take the ferry across Lake Ontario in order to attend the festivities.^[30] The tradition lasted from the early 20s to the mid-50s and connected Black communities across Ontario and around North America. These Emancipation Day celebrations were instrumental as they allowed the Black population an opportunity to come together in solidarity and remember where their ancestors came from, the progress that was made, as well as highlight some issues that they were still actively working to overcome.

After Marcus Garvey died in 1940, the UNIA chapter slowly declined and dispersed. Without Garvey’s advocacy and centralized leadership, the chapter fell apart. Following his death, UNIA Toronto remained a vital gathering place for the Black community in Toronto but eventually dwindled until its closure in 1982.^[31] Following its closure, the activist spirit of the organization remained in the city, as many of its former members joined the Black Action Defense Committee after several violent police incidents against Black people throughout the 1980s.^[32] Despite the Toronto branch closing, Garvey’s efforts to build community and empower the Black population remained, highlighting the value the UNIA provided to the border Black community.

Branch 3: UNIA of Nova Scotia 

The Maritime branch of the UNIA was founded in 1918. The headquarters for this particular branch was constructed in Glace Bay, Cape Breton.^[33] It should also be noted that several other UNIA locations were opened throughout the province. This included; New Aberdeen, Halifax, Tracadie, Dartmouth and Africville. Glace Bay and New Aberdeen held the most members.^[34] The Black population was dense within the Maritimes, yet segregation remained. Black children were often disallowed from being educated in public schools. Black men and women were not welcomed into white spaces, such as taverns and stores.^[35] UNIA membership was a way for Black Nova Scotias to counter the inherent racial discrimination. The UNIA’s additions in Nova Scotia were particularly favoured by Black Canadians and immigrants as it provided these safe havens.^[36] However, the main reason for the branch’s formation was the intent to aid immigrants from the West Indies. Female West-Indian immigrants were relegated to domestic work, while their male counterparts laboured within steel and coal mines.^[37]

Although many Black people worked these jobs for the benefit of the broader Canadian society, they were severely underpaid and could oftentimes not afford housing, due to the racial discrimination they continually faced. The UNIA branches acted as a shelter for these new Canadians, providing a vast collection of supportive community members.^[38] This support provided by the UNIA was vital to the survival of the Black population in this region as they struggled to build wealth and be self-sufficient.

As a result of the Great Depression, Black families left their settlements in Nova Scotia.^[39] As previously mentioned, they found new homes in urban areas such as Toronto and Montreal. Following this migration of Black people to urban regions the UNIA’s outreach lessened in Nova Scotia. Membership within Nova Scotia would decrease further after Marcus Garvey’s death in 1940. Regardless, the UNIA cannot be understated, as its effects can still be felt today. The UNIA’s success in Nova Scotia is vital, as it still lingers in Glace Bay. This clearly demonstrates the success of the UNIA in Nova Scotia, as the UNIA Cultural Museum now remains open to the public.^[40]

Conclusion

In summary, Black social clubs like the UNIA were integral in fostering community amongst Black Canadians. These clubs were welcoming spaces for Black people during a time when social and political discrimination limited opportunities for many within Canada’s Black demographic. While these issues were certainly prevalent within Canadian borders, social exclusion and anti-black racism were not unique to Canada.^[41] Rather, discriminatory practices and attitudes were often synonymous with the Black experience, although the manifestation of these practices varied across countries, regions, and even communities.^[42] There were many different subgroups of Black Canadians, such as those who were Canadian Born, Caribbean and African immigrants, all of which held different beliefs and values, making the long struggle to establish community even more difficult. The UNIA, however, was an organization that attempted to establish a unified Black identity in North America.

In Canada, the Montreal division provided car porters with a safe community away from home,^[43] bringing together hundreds of people for social, recreational, and educational purposes.^[44] The branch in Toronto more broadly acted as a space where Black people could congregate without fear that they would be refused.^[45] It also provided space for entertainers who may have had difficulty finding buildings that would host them.^[46] Lastly, the division in Sydney created a space that shielded Black people from the harsh treatment inflicted by the people of Nova Scotia and provided financial security to Black immigrants. In closing, social clubs like the UNIA were effective in shaping Canada’s cultural and social landscape. By moulding to the unique needs identified by each community, the UNIA provided a sense of belonging, empowerment, and support to Black Canadians.

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